The scattering is one of the most important subject in different sciences, include nuclear physics. In this thesis, consider the scattering and interaction of charged particles, which named ionizing radiations by the atoms of the target environment and specific its electrons. This review treated in two viewpoint of align="left" >The quantities using in both viewpoint, but with different definition of other is momentum transfer vector and cross-section of the collision. Because they are obtained in terms of quantities that is measurement in laboratory. The particle momentum transfer to the material is marking of internal structure of the material. As much as the transfer momentum become grader is means that the particle contact to much depth of substance. The quantities we will obtain are the result of the measurement. But two much important and key quantities obtained from the analysis of these interactions are called form factor and stopping power. The form factor represents the internal structure of the system and is a quantity to get by the charged particles in the scattering experiment.   Also, the stopping power is the amount of average energy that incident charged particles to loses in collision with target medium per unit path length of that. In this process, the kinetic energy of the incident particles to the heat energy of the scattering medium, which is also called the weakening medium is converted. In other words, this energy transfer is usually called incident particle energy loss. But for solve the collision problem and obtain the stopping power formula, we have to does simplification and modeling. Without modeling, it is not possible to obtain a formula of stopping power that can be used in laboratory conditions. The stopping power is generally divided into three align="left" >but, in various branches of physics, such as nuclear physics, the electronic stopping power is very important, because by knowing the value of this quantity, the kinetic energy of charged particles emitted from radioactive materials and their range in matter can be determined with a high approximation. By knowing these two values ??of particle radiation, the important information about the detection of radioactive rays can be obtained. And especially these values ??are used in technologies about protection against the radioactive rays and radiotherapy. In this research, the electronic stopping power is consideration especially.

  Abstract: Einstein's field equations predict the existence of four-dimensional black holes. The first uncharged and charged four-dimensional black hole solutions are known as Schwarzschild and Riesenordstrom black holes, respectively. The first three-dimensional black hole solution known as BTZ (Banados-Teitelboim-Zanelli) black holes was obtained in 1992 by solving the field equations in the presence of the negative cosmological constant. In the first part of this thesis, we obtained three-dimensional black hole solutions, with spherical symmetry, in Einstein's gravity, and after calculating thermodynamic quantities, we show that the first law of thermodynamics is true for these black holes. Then, using the canonical ensemble method, we check the thermodynamic stability of these black holes. In the second part, we extend the above idea to dilaton black holes (in Einstein-dilaton gravity). For this purpose, we obtain the black hole solutions of the field equations in the presence of a scalar field and considering the Lagrangian of the electromagnetic field as a material field and examine their geometric properties. Then we calculate the thermodynamic parameters of these black holes (mass, electric charge, temperature, entropy and electric potential) in appropriate ways. We show that the obtained quantities apply to the first law of thermodynamics of black holes and at the end we analyze the thermodynamic stability of dilatonic black holes using the canonical ensemble method. Keywords: 3D black holes, linear electrodynamics, Einstein-dilaton gravity, dilaton black holes, coupled gravity.

Abstract The presence of electromagnetic pollution not only poses a threat to human health but also disrupts the proper functioning of large-scale machinery. In light of this,a novel method involving sol-gel technique   was utilized to synthesize PVA/Mn Ferrite/(MoS2)x nanocomposites, which exhibit remarkable electromagnetic wave absorption roperties. By intelligently combining MoS2 with PVA/Mn Ferrite, the composite's electromagnetic parameters were optimized, leading to enhanced impedance matching. A   a   result,   the PVA/Mn Ferrite/(MoS2)x nanocomposites showcased an exceptional minimum reflection loss of -15.971dB at a thickness of 1 mm.The remarkable capability of absorbing substances can primarily be attributed to the outstanding synergistic interaction between PVA/Mn Ferrite and MoS2. Additionally, MoS2 also plays a significant role in generating dielectric loss and achieving ideal impedance matching. As a result, the potential applications of PVA/Mn Ferrite/(MoS2)x nanocomposites extend to serving as both absorption materials and light dependent resistance (LDR) sensors. These nanocomposites exhibit not only high efficiency but also possess the added advantages of flexibility and lightweight properties, further enhancing their desirability. Keywords: Absorbing material, Electrical and magnetic properties, Impedance matching, LDR sensor   

ميلياردها سال پيش انفجاربزرگ اتفاق افتاد،وجهان ما اغاز شد.علت انفجاربزرگ ، بزرگترين رازي است كه بشرهنوز نميداند،اين نظريه يكي از مهمترين موفقيت هاي علمي قرن بيستم است امروزه نمي توان جهان را بدون درك انفجار بزرگ شناخت ولي اين نظريه به نواحي كه فيزيك آن قابل فهم وآزمايش است محدود مي شودوتوضيحي براي نحوه ي تحول عالم در زمان هاي   ابتدايي تر وداغ تر ندارد. براي شناخت كيهان شناسي نوين بايد به اوايل قرن بيستم برگرديم،زماني كه انيشتين نظريه نسبيت عام خود را در سال1915 ميلادي منتشر كرد طبق اين نظريه بيان ميكند كه هندسه ي عالم با توزيع ماده ي درون عالم ،مشخص مي شود.در سال 1922 فريدمن جواب   معادلات كيهان شناسي انيشتين را برپايه ي يك عالم همگن وهمسانگرد بدست آوردكه به متريك FRW معروف شد.اين متريك نشان ميداد كه برخلاف تصور معمول آن زمان ،عالم درحال انبساط است. هابل در سال 1929بطور تجربي انبساط عالم توسط مشاهدات را تاييد كردو از ان پس متريك فريدمن به ابزار اصلي نظريه هاي كيهان شناسي تبديل شد.دراواخر دهه ي 1940،جرج گاموف وشاگردانش پيش بيني كردند كه جهان امروز بايد از تابش جسم سياه پر شده باشد ولي مشاهده ي تجربي اين پديده در سال 1965 انجام گرفت. در دهه ي 1970مشخص شداين تابش كه تابش ريزموج زمينه ي كيهانيCMB نام گرفت،به لحاظ توزيع فركانسي   داراي طيف تابش جسم سياه است.سرانجام جامعه ي علمي قانع شدند كه اين تابش باقي مانده اي از انفجار بزرگ است. بدين ترتيب مدل مهبانگ بعنوان مدل استانداردانفجار بزرگ پذيرفته شد. با كشف ويژگي همگني وهمسانگردي تابش زمينه ي كيهاني ،مشكلاتي چون تختي عالم،مشكل افق،مشكل تك قطبي ونيز منشا افت وخيزهاي اين تابش مطرح شدند كه كيهان شناسي استاندارد پاسخ قانع كننده اي براي اين مشكلات نداشت. كيهان شناسي تورمي اولين باربعنوان مدلي براي حل مشكلات نظريه ي استاندارد انفجار بزرگ ارائه شد.در اين الگو فرض مي شود كه ماده ي غالب جهان در لحظات اوليه پس از انفجار ،يك ميدان اسكالر است كه ميدان اينفليتون نام دارد.وجود اين ميدان باعث شده است كه انبساط عالم داراي شتابي مثبت باشد وبدين ترتيب در بازه ي بسيار بسيار كوچكي از زمان،شعاع عالم به مقدار زيادي رشد كرده است. يكي ازمسايل اساسي در كيهان شناسي نوين ،منشآ افت وخيز هاي اوليه ي ميدان تورمي زا در طول اين دوره ،بعنوان هسته ي اوليه ي تشكيل ساختارها مي باشد كه اين الگوي تورمي داراي پيش بيني هايي براي توزيع ناهمسانگردي ها واختلالات مشاهده شده در عالم است. در واقع ساختار هاي بزرگ مقياسي كه در جهان امروز مشاهده مي شوند،از افت وخيزهاي كوانتومي يك ميدان اسكالر در طي دوران تورمي در جهان اغازين ناشي شده اند .اختلال هاي نخستين كه در طي دوره ي تورم ايجاد شده اند، اثرشان روي توزيع ماده وتابش كاملا مشهود است. يكي از مهمترين نتايج مدل هاي تورمي اين است كه وجود طيف هايي براي اختلالات اسكالر واختلالات تانسوري كه به ترتيب عامل ايجاد ناهمگني چگالي ووامواج گرانشي هستند، پيش بيني مي كنند. اختلال هاي نخستين كه در طي تورم ايجاد شده اند ،اثرشان را روي طيف توان CMBنشان مي دهند وقيود قابل مشاهده اي را روي اين طيف ايجاد مي كنند .اثرات اين اختلالات را مي توان با محاسبه ي پارامترهاي اختلالي مدل هاي تورمي روي طيف توان CMB،مشاهده كرد. دراين پايان نامه مطالب، به شرح زير ارائه مي شوند:

in 1916 , einstein expressed his theory of gravity as a second - order symmetric tensor , which is based on the theory of gravity as the curvature of spacetime .one of the ويژگيهاي of this theory is known as the بيني of the black hole as the field equation , the most simple جوابها in the four - dimensional case is called شوارتزشيلد and رايزنر - نوردستروم solution .the search for جوابهاي سياهچالهاي in space - the three - dimensional space in 1992 ended .بانادوس and his colleagues ( Banados - Teitelboim - Zanelli ) demonstrated that the field equations in the presence of the negative cosmological constant have also a non - stationary response ( if einstein used the cosmological constant to say that the universe is static , but it is later used to show the universe that is expanding ) [ 2 , 1 ] … this is called سياهچالههاي سياهچالههاي .later , سياهچالههاي BTZ were also obtained from solving the gravitational field equations coupled with maxwell 's electrodynamics [ 3 ] .next , the three - dimensional سياهچالههاي was introduced as the جوابهاي of the field equations in the presence of maxwell 's electrodynamics and in einstein - ديلاتون theory [ 5 , 4 ] .recently , a model of maxwell 's modified electrodynamics is introduced in the name of euler - heisenberg electrodynamics , which is used to study the scalar tensor of maxwell in scalar - tensor theory [ 6 ] .in ref . [ 7 ] , einstein 's field equations are solved in the presence of euler - heisenberg and cosmological constant .­­­­­­­­ at the end of the thesis we can develop a novel method based on the einstein - ديلاتون gravitational theory .for this purpose , euler - heisenberg electrodynamics is used as a model of nonlinear electrodynamics which is called maxwell 's modified model .first , by using the three - dimensional theory of euler - heisenberg 's lagrangian theorem , the coupled equations of tensor , vector , and scalar field equations are obtained in einstein 's theory and then by introducing a three - dimensional symmetric metric , the equations are obtained which are a second - order coupled system .in order to solve this problem , we use different حدسي مدلهاي to solve this problem by calculating the number of equations obtained for حلمعادلات and finding unknown unknowns .finally , we obtain the potential field of ديلاتوني , faraday 's law tensor , and the black solution of nonlinear charged چاله .by calculating the thermodynamic and thermodynamic properties of the black holes , the first law of ترموديناميكرابررسي is ميكنيم .the transition phase transition of the black hole is determined by using the canonical ensemble method and by calculating the black thermal capacity of the holes , the transition points of the first type and transition horizon of the second type and also the radius of the black event horizon are determined which are in the thermodynamic equilibrium state .

   In today's world, the need for flexible, light, small and at the same time energy storage devices with high energy storage density for use in the manufacture and design of electronic devices is very much felt. Preparing capacitors in the shortest possible time with high energy storage capacity based on cheap and environmentally friendly materials is one of the challenges of today's human progress in using energy storage tools. Therefore, in this thesis, the design and construction of flexible microsupercapacitor based on the active materials of graphene nanocomposites was put on the agenda. In this research, by emphasizing the use of environmentally friendly materials and in the shortest possible time, a tool is designed and built to store as much energy as possible in small and portable dimensions. The morphology of the surface and the crystal structure of the manufactured electrodes are evaluated by different analyses. Also, the capacity and energy density of the prepared microsupercapacitor is investigated by electrochemical analysis. In this research, by making two different electrodes, RGO and RGO/CuO, and examining the electrochemical characteristics of each, we achieved a compatible and useful material for increasing energy density and power density. By performing cyclic voltammetry on these two electrode materials, we obtained a capacity of 2.73 mF.cm-2 and 9.02 mF.cm-2 at a scan rate of 10 mV.s-1 for RGO and RGO/CuO electrodes. The capacity of the composite supercapacitor after 1000 cycles has been maintained at 87%, which is an acceptable number compared to valid articles.   

  The problem of the expansion of the universe is one of the biggest puzzles in modern astronomy. Scientists have discovered that our universe started with a big bang and has been expanding ever since. Researchers have tried to measure the current rate of expansion of the universe. In the first chapter, to investigate the amount of cosmic expansion, we introduce type la supernovae and then compare their observations for the luminosity distance as a function of redshift with the results of the supernova cosmology project and the high-Z supernova search team. By examining CMB, the Hubble constant is introduced to use this quantity to estimate the age of the universe since the Big Bang, and then to study the supernova data to detect the accelerating expansion of the universe. Then, by comparing the calculated luminosity distance in the non-matter or radiation, the effect of vacuum energy on the apparent luminosity was obtained. Then, the existence of dark energy is proved and its density instability is investigated. In the second chapter, we describe the classic problems of cosmology, namely the plane and the problem of the horizon, and examine the amount of inflation required to solve each. The exponential form increases, which means that the universe is growing rapidly, and the end of inflation occurs when some of the scalar field of inflation is paired with the fields of ordinary matter and radiation. In such a way that the density of the scalar field decreases and then the period of reheating occurs, which causes the entropy of the current world. In the third chapter, he first introduces Tachyon hot inflation and studies it in the contemporary theory of ring quantum gravity, using Poisson's bracket for LQC variables, obtains the classical Hamiltonian constraint and then the modified Friedman equation. Then we obtain the Hubble parameter and the pressure and density of energy and its Tachyon field potential, and then we define the parameters of slow rolling and by entering the condition of end of inflation, we obtain the value of power e. In the next section, we study the cosmic perturbations of the Tachyon hot-inflation model, including curvature perturbation, entropy perturbation, and density perturbation, and the scalar index in the high dissipative regime, which leads to the perturbation spectrum, and describe its relationships. We obtain the Einstein turbulent field equation for the Fourier components e^ikx and then calculate the exponential potential of the Tachyon field.

   در كل كار مافرض كرده ايم كه ميدان تورم در معادله حركت در غلتش ثابت قابل قبول است. ما فرض مي كنيم كه تورم با هيچ قشر ديگري همراه نيست بنابراين تورم سرد است. در ادامه كه برسي ما شامل يك مدل تورمي ثابت جديد نيست، اما حاوي يك رويكردي جديد براي بازسازي پتانسيل تورمي كه ثبات تكامل ميدان را ثابت مي كند. به جاي استفاده از ميدان به عنوان متغير، ما از تعدادي عدد توان الكترونيكي استفاده مي كنيم كه به نظر مي رسد يك ابزار مفيد در تورم گرم است. راه حل هاي تحليلي براي پارامترهابل، ميدان اسكالر و پتانسيل به عنوان تابعي از عدد توان الكتذوني، محاسبه شده است. سرانجام، نشان داده شد كه اين روش كاملاً منطبق است بر تحليل راه حل هايي كه تاكنون در تورم   غلتش ثابت به دست آمده است.

In this work, we investigate the optical response of a molecule in an active layer in core-shell and multilayer metallic nanoparticles by calculating its scattering cross section. The molecule in the active layer as a point electric dipole is considered. We also study the effect of an external point charge placed next to the nanoshell on the far-field Raman scattering or fluoresce emission of molecules residing inside the particle. It shown that the presence of an electric charge near plasmonic nanoshells can increase the far-field enhancement. The effect of physical and geometrical parameters on the far-field scattering cross section of the Raman active layer is investigated.

  Quantum Radiography or Quantum State Radiography is the process of quantum state reconstruction for the source of quantum systems by measuring on the input systems from the source. In this dissertation we present a demonstration of quantum process radiography for the photon amplifier and dimmer operator.

   The three approach to relativistic generalization of coherent state are discussed in the simplest case of a spinless   article: the standard, canonical, coherent states, the Lorentzian state and the coherent state introduced by Kaiser and independently by Twareque Ali,Antoine and Gazeau. All treatment utilize the Newton-Wigner localization avd dynamics described by saltpeter equation .The behavior of expectation values of relativistic observables in coherent state is analyzed in detail and the Heisenberg uncertainty relation are investigated.

 abstract

Over the past several years, attention has been focused on Alternating crystal structures of various materials in physics and photonics. In this study, first the Alternating crystal structures (or photonic crystal) is introduced and the laws that is controlling the transmission of electromagnetic waves through the photonic crystal and the transfer matrix method are studied. Then the relationship of the transfer coefficient of the electromagnetic wave through the crystal layers is estimated and different structures of the dielectric layer alternation is studied. In order to improve the transfer coefficient of wave through the photon crystal and reduce the band gap energy, a metal nanoparticles composite and graphene layer is introduced and added to the structure and the results are studied. The results of the theoretical calculations that was performed in this study represente that the addition of a metal nanoparticles composite and the use of graphene monolayers in one-dimensional photonic crystal structure causes the destroy of band gap energy in the transmitted spectrum of the structure. This result can be used in the manufacture of photonic devices over a wide frequency range.

  In this study, we investigate the Nonaxi symmetric oscillations of thin twisted magnetic flux tubes in two states. First, when the magnetic field inside and outside the magnetic flux tube is twisted and the twist is weak. Then, while the magnetic field outside the tube is straight and homogenous, however it is twisted inside the tube. And secondly we add the equilibrium current of the plasma along the magnetic field. And by adding the flow effect, we study the frequency of the oscillations in the presence of current, we obtain the magnetic pressure relationship inside and outside the magnetic flux tubes, and by applying boundary conditions we obtain the dispersion relation. Using the dispersion realtion we plot the graph ?? in terms of ????. And we see that the frequency of kink oscillations increases in the presence of the equilibrium current of the plasma.

In this study, we investigate the entangled coherent states and their decoherence. We briefly introduce the coherent states which have been identified in physics and then the introduction and creation of   loch coherent states are dealt with.‎‎‎‎ We examine these states from different points of view, namely, group theory, irreducible representations and also from Fock Bargmann's viewpoint. Moreover, we investigate the entangled coherent states which are among the most important states in quantum information processing. ‎‎‎‎‎There are some criteria for the study of these states, including ‎B‎ell inequality, entropy, fidelity and entanglement of formation, which will be explained here in brief. ‎ ‎‎We will examine the qubit of orthogonal coherent states. We present these states on ‎B‎loch sphere.‎ ‎‎‎‎‎In quantum optics, a possible method of producing the entangled states of two mode of light field, is transmission of single mode state and its interference with another state (vacuum state) on a beam splitter. ‎‎‎We will calculate the amount of entanglement in these states which can be produced in beam splitter. The entangled states which are produced by using this method, are the entangled coherent states.‎ ‎‎‎‎‎‎We will describe the decoherence of ‎these‎ coherent state ‎qubits‎‎ and finally, using the adaptive Bloch sphere, we will provide an interpretation of these states.‎‎‎‎‎

 elasticity and conductivity of graphene affected by zn and si and sn adatoms

Abstract    A nanostructure is defined as a structure with 1-100 nanometer size. These materials have different properties with respect to those bulk forms.Zinc oxid in bulk form is a semiconductor with 3.37ev gap energy, and therefor it has interesting properties and applications in optoelectronic device.The energies of arousal of 60 Mev signify the emission of radiation. To calculate structure and electronic properties of different forms ZnO. We have performed self-consistent calculations using the FP-LAPW approach based on density functional theory. We have used WIEN2K code for our calculations. The exchange correlation potential was calculated in the generalized gradient approximation (GGA).

  According to quantum theory the energy can exchange between physical system is quantized. Naturally, the study of the physical behavior of light can also follow this law. To consider the signature of the quantum nature of light from the theoretical perspective is required to quantize the electromagnetic field. The important field’s states are number states, coherent states and squeezed states. During the second half of twentieth century, field quantisation and field’s states were successfully detected and produced.  Keywords: Field Quantisation – Coherent States – Squeezed States

In this project due to the importance of Ti6AL4VO2 thin films in turbine blades, disks, electronic junctions, floaters and medical implants; we investigate their crystallographic and optical properties. Thin films of Ti6Al4VO2 were deposited on glass substrates using sputtering method. The deposition process were performed in constant 200W RF magnetron sputtering for 20, 30 and 40 min. The as sputtered films were characterized and analyzed by XRD method, UV-Vis spectrometer, Atomic force microscope (AFM) and SEM. XRD patterns showed that amorphous Ti6Al4VO2 thin films were coated on glass substrates. The films are highly tra  arent about 90%. Using transmittance and absorption spectra and by Kramers-Kronig method, refractive index and extinction coefficient spectra variations vs. wavelength were obtained. It is observed that by increasing deposition time these optical parameters were decreased. Surface morphology indicates that with increasing deposition time the sizes of the nanoparticles and surface roughness were decreased. But increasing time of deposition increases the optical band gap of the films from 3.03 to 3.15 eV.

       In recent years , tra  arent conductive structures have been studied extensively. Dielectric/Metal/Dielectric (DMD) structures are suitable alternatives for tra  arent conductive structures . In DMD structures , dielectric layers suppress the reflection of the metal layer.These structures can be used in various applications such as flat panel displays , energy – efficient windows , thin film transistors , gas sensors , organic solar cells , organic light emitting diodes , and photovoltaic applications.In this project , DMD thin films are deposited on the glass substrate , whose dielectric layers are Titanium dioxide (TiO2) and Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) , as well as Au and Ag   metal layers . The ZnS layer and Ag layer are maked by thermal evaporation and Au layer deposited by sputtering method and the TiO2 layer is deposited by dip coating method. The purpose of this work is to produce DMD structures with different metal layers and to compare structural properties , morohology , optical transition , and band gap energy of these structures. In other words, the purpose of this study is   to investigate   the effect of metal layer change on optical and structural properties.

  In this thesis, first, we look at the theory of quantum fields especially the quantum fields of the spinor and vector, in the first and second chapters them we describe the general definition of coherent states and their properties.In the third chapter, we state which the definition of Fourier transform, the Fourier transform is the oldest signal conversion tool that decomposes a signal into components of exponential functions with different frequencies and it is able to transmit the received signal from the time domain to the frequency domain. This conversion lacks any information about the time of each frequency occurrence. In other words, in this transformation, the time dependent information is completely eliminated. [1]In fact, depiction of signal in the frequency domain, do not have efficiency for analysis of non-static signals; because of the inability to represent frequency variations over time. As the result, we find that there is a need of distribution with the ability to represent frequency variations over time, that it shows time-frequency distributions as well as these signal variations. [2] We have stated them in chapter four. Gabor only used the Fourier transform for the short time limit from receiving signal, with the invention of a new method, and he called this time limit as the time window.Gabor, calculated the Fourier transform of each part by moving the window over the time of receiving signals and he called it the Fourier transform, that it is an example of time-frequency analysis. This conversion has the fixed width of window simultaneously, that leads to non- >In the fifth chapter, we scrutinized the basis implement of MRI, which is based on the spin motion of the nuclei of the hydrogen atom, then we describe the methods of imaging, including spin-echo, multidimensional imaging, multi-image imaging, and so on. Also, In Chapter 6, we have explained the components of the MRI machine in details.